Chapter 14 Scientific Reports Spreadsheet Models and Presentations

Year 1 · Introduction to Computing · G115-L2

Build clear geological reports, checked spreadsheet calculations and evidence-based presentations using a worked density-data example.

A repeatable workflow from a testable question to an evidence-based interpretation. Original Geology Hub teaching diagram.

Learning objectives: Structure a report with heading styles, calculate and audit a spreadsheet formula, choose a suitable graph, and present a scientific conclusion clearly.

A document should expose its reasoning

A scientific report needs a question, a method, results and an interpretation that answers the question. Heading styles express this structure consistently and support navigation. They are more reliable than repeatedly selecting text and changing its size by hand. Captions identify figures and tables; references acknowledge borrowed ideas and data. A visually polished report remains weak if its measurements cannot be traced to a method.

Separate observation from interpretation throughout the document. “The sample contains visible rounded grains” records a feature; “the sample formed in a river” is an interpretation requiring further evidence. A report can state both, but should explain the connection. Use tables for repeated comparable records and paragraphs for reasoning. Include units in headings or clearly defined columns so readers do not have to infer them.

Spreadsheet cells form a calculation model

A spreadsheet contains values and formulas linked through cell references. A formula beginning with an equals sign calculates a result from inputs. Relative references change when copied, while absolute references remain fixed. Before filling a formula down a column, identify which inputs should move and which constants must remain anchored. A copied error can look consistent across hundreds of rows.

Use one row per observation and one column per variable. Do not merge cells inside a data table merely to improve appearance, because this can complicate sorting and analysis. Preserve sample identifiers as identifiers rather than assuming they are numbers to average. Distinguish a blank, a true zero and a value below a detection limit. Document conversions instead of silently changing units.

Report structure carries scientific meaning

A heading distinguishes one level of argument from another, while a caption identifies a particular evidence item. A table headed “Sample mass in grams” defines the column more effectively than repeating a unit in some cells and omitting it in others. Cross-references connect a claim with its figure or table. If a figure is rearranged, a managed reference can be updated consistently. The document’s structure thus helps maintain the relationship between explanations and the evidence they cite.

Reference behaviour determines copied calculations

Suppose masses occupy column B and volumes column C. A density formula in row two can refer to B2/C2, with those row references changing when copied downward. If every row uses a calibration factor in a single cell, that factor needs an appropriately fixed reference. Otherwise the copied calculation may silently point to a blank or unrelated value. Test the first and a later row against hand calculations to distinguish a correct formula from a merely repeated pattern.

Unit conversions should remain visible

If volume is recorded in cubic millimetres but density is required in grams per cubic centimetre, the volume must be converted consistently: one cubic centimetre contains 1,000 cubic millimetres. A fictional 27-gram specimen with volume 10,000 cubic millimetres has volume 10 cubic centimetres and density 2.7 grams per cubic centimetre. Dividing directly by 10,000 would produce a differently expressed quantity. A separate conversion column makes both the operation and its units auditable.

Graphs distinguish observations from models

A scatter plot places paired measurements at their observed coordinates. A fitted line is an additional model, not another direct observation. Displaying a trend does not prove causation, and extending the line beyond the measured range is extrapolation. Labels should state units; uncertainty bars require a definition of what they represent. A chart that omits an unusual but valid specimen can alter the apparent relationship, so exclusions need stated criteria rather than visual convenience.

Present the inference rather than the worksheet

For a short geological presentation, one slide can establish the question, another display the relevant measurements, and another connect them to an interpretation with a limitation. A large data table is useful only if its individual entries are needed by the audience. Otherwise, a readable plot and selected values communicate more. Figure credits preserve provenance when a diagram is adapted. The spoken explanation should distinguish “these samples have similar density” from “these rocks share one origin,” because the second statement requires additional geological evidence.

Worked density calculation

A fictional sample has a mass of 135 grams and a measured volume of 50 cubic centimetres. Density equals mass divided by volume, giving 2.70 grams per cubic centimetre. If mass is in B2 and volume in C2, an example formula is =B2/C2. A second row with 108 grams and 40 cubic centimetres also gives 2.70. Calculate one result manually to check that the spreadsheet expresses the intended physical relationship.

Now change the second volume to zero in a disposable copy. The calculation should flag an invalid input rather than hide the problem as a plausible number. Input checking is part of the model. If the goal is to compare mass and volume, a scatter plot with labelled axes is more informative than a decorative pie chart. Plotting points does not prove a relationship; consider measurement uncertainty and the range represented.

Turn results into a presentation

A presentation should guide an audience from the question to the evidence and conclusion. Give each slide one main contribution. A figure title can state what the audience should notice, while labels and captions explain how the data were obtained. Avoid using a large screenshot of a spreadsheet when a small, legible plot communicates the result. Explain any excluded measurements and avoid implying that fictional teaching data are field observations.

For an activity, produce a one-page report and three-slide outline from the density example. The report should contain the formula, input units, result and limitation that porous or water-absorbing samples may need a more carefully specified volume method. The slides should show the question, the checked calculation and the conclusion. The finished work should be understandable without the author standing beside it.

Self-check

Why check one spreadsheet result by hand?

It tests whether the formula and units represent the intended physical calculation.

What is wrong with treating a zero sample volume as valid?

Density would be undefined, so the input must be flagged rather than accepted.

Which graph compares paired mass and volume measurements?

A scatter plot with mass and volume on clearly labelled axes is appropriate.

Sources and further study

Topic framework: the supplied University of Peshawar BS Geology curriculum, session 2004–05 onward. This independently authored learning resource is not affiliated with the university and does not confer a degree or accreditation.

Chapter 14 multiple choice questions

Choose one best answer for each question. Open each answer panel after making your choice.

Why use heading styles in a scientific report?
1. They automatically validate the scientific interpretation.
2. They remove the need for figure captions.
3. They convert every paragraph into a table.
4. They express a consistent document structure and support navigation.
Answer and explanation
D. They express a consistent document structure and support navigation. Heading styles support organization, but evidence and reasoning still require separate review.
Mass in cell B2 is 135 g and volume in C2 is 50 cm³. What result should =B2/C2 return for density?
1. 0.370 g/cm³
2. 2.70 g/cm³
3. 6,750 g/cm³
4. 85 g/cm³
Answer and explanation
B. 2.70 g/cm³ Density is mass divided by volume: 135/50 = 2.70 g/cm³.
A formula is copied down a spreadsheet column. Which question must be checked first?
1. Which references should move with the row and which must remain fixed?
2. Whether every reference should move, including a fixed calibration constant
3. Whether every reference should be fixed, including changing sample inputs
4. Whether the copied result should be typed as a constant instead of calculated
Answer and explanation
A. Which references should move with the row and which must remain fixed? Relative and absolute references behave differently when a formula is copied.
A sample row has a volume of zero in a density calculation. What is the appropriate response?
1. Treat the density as reliably equal to zero.
2. Replace the volume silently with the previous row’s value.
3. Flag the invalid input instead of accepting a plausible-looking density.
4. Delete every other row from the dataset.
Answer and explanation
C. Flag the invalid input instead of accepting a plausible-looking density. Division by zero is undefined, and silently changing the input would conceal the problem.
A presentation must compare paired sample masses and volumes. Which graphic is most suitable?
1. A pie chart whose slices are sample identifiers
2. A scatter plot with labelled mass and volume axes
3. A decorative photograph without measurements
4. A screenshot of an unreadably large spreadsheet
Answer and explanation
B. A scatter plot with labelled mass and volume axes A scatter plot represents paired quantitative variables and allows their relationship to be examined.

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